The Evolution of Intelligence
dahms
May 10th, 2022
Animal Communication and Human Language
Language is an extremely complex system of communication that is exclusive to humans. Its development has allowed humans to convey complex thoughts, express emotions, and share information. Animal communication is the transmission of information from one individual to another through a variety of methods, including visual, auditory, and chemical signals. While all communication is essential to social interaction and survival in animals, language itself is unique to humans and has several distinct characteristics that separate it from animal communication.
Animal communication is primarily used for survival purposes, such as finding food, avoiding predators, and mating. In addition, it is generally innate and does not require learning. For example, a bird's song is an innate ability that is programmed into its DNA (Searcy 2019) On the other hand, language is a system of communication that is unique to humans. It is a dynamic ability that is used to express thoughts, emotions, and ideas. Unlike most animal communication, language is learned through exposure and practice, and it can be used to communicate a virtually unlimited number of ideas. Importantly, language can be used to refer to things that are not present, and it can be used to discuss future or past events.
One key difference between animal communication and language is the complexity of the signals involved. While animal communication can be complex and involve multiple signals, it is generally much simpler than language. For example, vervet monkeys use multiple different alarm calls to signal the presence of different predators, but these calls are relatively fixed and lack the flexibility of language (Seyfarth et al. 1992). In contrast, human language has an infinite number of possible combinations of sounds, words, and syntax, which allows for the expression of a wide range of ideas and messages. Another important difference is the degree of intentionality involved in communication. While animals can communicate with each other, they do not do so with the same degree of intentionality as humans (Brickerton 2014). Language involves intentional communication, and turn taking. This means that speakers are aware of the fact that they are communicating with others and are able to adjust their language accordingly. Animals, on the other hand, communicate primarily to openly convey information about the environment or to establish relationships.
Animal communication and language are fundamentally different in terms of their complexity, intentionality, and flexibility. Animal communication lacks the intentional and flexible nature of human language, which is why it cannot be considered the same. This leaves many questions remaining such as why there is such a gap in human language and animal communication; also, how do animals develop thoughts without the presence of language?
Evidence Animals Think Without Language
Many have argued that language is a fundamental component of higher-order thinking, leading some to argue that the absence of language in non-human animals limits their cognitive abilities. However, a growing body of research suggests that animals can exhibit advanced cognitive skills, such as serial learning and episodic-like memory, without the need for language. These findings challenge the notion that language is a necessary prerequisite for cognitive processing and suggest that animals may possess more complex cognitive abilities than previously thought. It seems that animals can engage in advanced cognitive processing without language and the implications of these findings are crucial for our understanding of animal cognition and the evolution of language.
One area of evidence that animals think without language is the phenomenon of episodic-like memory. This is the ability to remember specific events that have occurred in the past, similar to how humans remember their personal experiences. A study conducted by Clayton and Dickinson (1998) found that scrub jays can remember the location and type of food that they have cached, even after several days have passed. The jays were able to remember locations, feeding times, and types of food given, as well as create a plan for the most efficient food storage. This suggests that scrub jays can mentally reconstruct past events in a way that is similar to episodic memory in humans. (Clayton et al., 1998)
Another area of evidence that animals think without language is the ability to perform complex tasks without explicit instruction. A new approach to this concept of serial learning is called the "simultaneous chain." This theory was constructed by presenting a subject with a series of images in a specific order. This study found that monkeys were able to recall the sequence of images without being explicitly taught, when provided reward (Terrace 2005). This demonstrates that monkeys have an ability to learn and perform complex tasks without language.
In light of the evidence presented, it is clear that language is not the only means by which animals are able to engage in higher-order thinking. While some argue that language is a necessary component of thought, the abilities of animals in tasks such as episodic-like memory and serial learning demonstrate that this is not necessarily the case. However, the question of what constitutes an abstract thought and whether this is only possible with language remains an open one. More research is needed to fully understand the relationship between language and thinking in both animals and humans, and to better appreciate the full extent of cognitive abilities across species. Ultimately, a more nuanced understanding of the role of language in thought has the potential to yield important insights not only into the minds of other animals, but also into how our own cognitive processes may have evolved over time.
Wallace’s Problem
As we now know, language is one of the most prominent and distinguishing features of human beings, setting us apart from every other species on the planet. Yet, the origin and evolution of language remains a mystery. The common belief is that language simply evolved from animal communication, as human language being a more complex and sophisticated version of earlier communication systems used by non-human animals. However, Alfred Wallace proposed a great problem with this theory. Wallace's problem is a critique that refers to the difficulty of explaining how and why human language evolved, given that no other animals have a language like ours. On top of this, Wallace’s problem investigates the gap of knowledge between humans and animals, and questions how evolution could have accounted for this gap. Some have suggested that language may have been a result of sexual selection, which involves individuals with certain traits being preferred as mates, leading to those traits becoming more prevalent in the population over time (Knell 2013). However, this theory has been met with skepticism, as there is little evidence to support it.
Other solutions to Wallace's problem are still based on the idea that language evolved from earlier forms of communication. Essentially, they say that language is not a completely new adaptation, but rather a "cultural invention" that built upon existing cognitive and communicative abilities (Levinson 2014). This article also argues that the evolution of language involved a "gradual accumulation" of communicative abilities, including the ability to use symbols and combine them in complex ways. This also suggests that the evolution of language was driven by social factors, particularly the need for greater cooperation and coordination within groups (Levinson 2014). This is consistent with the idea that language evolved in response to social and environmental pressures, such as the need to hunt and gather food, protect oneself from predators, and maintain social relationships within a group.
Another influential voice in the study of language evolution is Derek Bickerton. In his book "More than Nature Needs," Bickerton argues that language is unique to humans because it involves what he calls "unbounded productivity" (Bickerton 2014). This refers to the ability to produce an infinite number of meaningful sentences, which is not found in other forms of animal communication. Bickerton suggests that this ability emerged through a process of "proto-language," which he describes as a rudimentary form of language that combined few sounds that was used by early humans to communicate (Bickerton 2014). Bickerton's theory proposes that proto-language was not fully developed language but rather a precursor to language that was characterized by a limited set of grammar rules and a limited vocabulary. According to Bickerton, proto-language also likely emerged because of social factors such as the need to convey information about food sources and the need to coordinate group activities. Over time, he suggests, proto-language evolved into full-fledged language as it became more complex and sophisticated.
The evolution of language from animal communication is an ongoing topic of study for linguists. Both Alfred Wallace and Derek Bickerton propose theories that suggest that language evolved gradually from earlier forms of communication, driven by social and environmental pressures. Wallace's problem highlights the unique nature of human language and the difficulty of explaining its origins. While Bickerton looks to address this gap, and explain the lack of language prominence in other closely related species.
Darwin’s Dangerous Idea
The theory of evolution is a fundamental concept in the field of science and is arguably one of the most important discoveries of our time. Evolution is the basis for understanding how life on Earth has developed over time. The theory was first proposed by Charles Darwin in the mid-19th century and has since been refined and expanded upon. The theory uses several main principles to outline its assumptions and implications on species variation.
The first principle of evolution is natural selection. Natural selection is the process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population over time. Traits that are advantageous for survival and reproduction will become more prevalent in a population, while traits that are detrimental will become less common. This principle is based on the idea that individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those traits to their offspring (Brodie et al. 1995). Another form of selection that is important to evolution is sexual selection. Sexual selection is a type of natural selection that specifically relates to the selection of traits that enhance an individual's ability to mate and reproduce. This principle is based on the idea that certain traits, such as bright colors or elaborate displays, can make an individual more attractive to potential mates (Knell et al., 2013). This form of selection is more prominent in social creatures and can have greater meta impact on traits due to the direct link to sex.
Mutation is the next most important principle of evolution. Mutation is the process by which new genetic variations arise. Mutations can occur spontaneously or can be caused by environmental factors, such as exposure to radiation. Most mutations are neutral or harmful, but occasionally a beneficial mutation can arise and become more prevalent in a population over time (Brodie et al., 1995). However, this can only be possible if there is gene flow and natural variation. Gene flow refers to the movement of genes between populations. This can occur through the movement of individuals or the transfer of genetic material through mating (Brodie et al. 1995). Gene flow can help to maintain genetic diversity within a population and can also introduce new traits into a population.
The final pillar of evolution is genetic drift, which refers to random fluctuations in the frequency of traits within a population (Knell 2013). These fluctuations can be due to chance events, such as natural disasters or the movement of individuals between populations. Over time, genetic drift can lead to the fixation or loss of certain traits within a population.
It is important to understand the landscape and setting of science when Darwin first introduced this theory. At the time, the common belief of the existence of life was creationism through a divine figure. The theory of evolution was controversial in its time because it challenged the prevailing belief in a divine creator and the idea that species were immutable (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2018). Darwin's theory proposed that all species were descended from a common ancestor and that the process of natural selection was responsible for the diversity of life on Earth. Darwin's theory was also dangerous because it challenged the idea of human exceptionalism. Darwin proposed that humans were not fundamentally different from other animals and that the same principles of evolution applied to all species. This idea challenged the traditional view of humans as the pinnacle of creation and raised difficult questions about the origins of human morality and consciousness.
The theory of evolution has profound implications for our understanding of the natural world. The basic principles of evolution, including natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift, provide a framework for understanding how life on Earth has developed over time. Darwin's idea was “dangerous” at the time because he proposed that all species were subject to the same principles of evolution and this greatly challenged the traditional doctrine of views of human exceptionalism and created difficult conversations about the true nature of morality and purpose in humans.
Baby’s First Words
The ability to produce words marks the beginning of the acquisition of language. While language learning is an intricate process, human infants can learn to produce words by the end of their first year (Burling 2012). Research has suggested that various uniquely human factors contribute to this miraculous feat in such a short time frame. Beginning at birth, infants are equipped with an impressive set of cognitive abilities that aid in their language acquisition. However, research has also shown that social factors play a critical role in the development of early language skills. For example, infants who receive more language input from their caregivers tend to have larger vocabularies and show more advanced language skills than those who do not (Farroni et al. 2002). In addition, studies have suggested that exposure to these joint attention and turn-taking ability during early interactions with caregivers also plays a crucial role in the development of language skills.
Despite the incredible speed with which infants acquire language, the process is not without its challenges. For example, learning the meanings of words is an ongoing process that extends well beyond the first year of life. Nevertheless, the ability to produce phonic words represents a crucial milestone in the acquisition of language, and one that sets the stage for continued language development throughout childhood and beyond. As Burling (2012) notes, understanding the adaptations that allow for this remarkable feat is crucial to diving deeper into the evolution and development of language in humans.
The ability to physically and sonically produce words is influenced by various factors. At birth, infants are highly responsive to auditory stimuli, and the sound of the human voice is especially significant to them. Infants are born with the capacity to recognize human voices and are capable of distinguishing between different speech sounds (Mundy et al., 2007). This is the first step in language acquisition, as it allows infants to differentiate sounds and begin to learn words. Infants rely on their ability to detect speech sounds to make sense of the language they hear and begin to form associations between the sounds and the objects they represent.
Another significant factor in word production is joint attention, which refers to the ability to share attention with another person. Joint attention enables infants to learn from the behavior of others and develop the ability to imitate sounds and words (Mundy et al., 2007). Mundy et al. (2007) suggest that infants who exhibit greater joint attention skills in the first year of life are more likely to develop language skills faster. These skills include pointing and following the gaze of others, which allow infants to learn words and associate them with objects in the environment.
Finally, the ability to interpret the gaze and facial expressions of others is crucial to word production. Farroni et al. (2002) suggest that infants rely heavily on the gaze of adults to learn words. According to their research, when an adult looks at an object and then looks back at the infant, the infant is more likely to learn the name of the object. This finding highlights the importance of eye contact and gaze direction in word production. Infants are also more likely to learn words when adults use exaggerated facial expressions and high-pitched tones, which capture their attention and facilitate word learning (Farroni et al., 2002). Infants are born with the ability to recognize human speech, and this ability is the result of the evolution of the auditory system. Similarly, joint attention and the ability to interpret the gaze of others are the result of the evolution of the social and cognitive systems (Mundy et al., 2007). These uniquely human factors have evolved to enable infants to learn language by the end of their first year. This suggests that language acquisition is not only a product of cognitive development and social cues but that it is also the result of biological evolution.
These factors have evolved to enable infants to rapidly learn and use the complex system of language that is crucial to human communication and social interaction. The ability to produce words marks the beginning of this process, and it is a remarkable feat that sets humans apart from other animals. As we have seen, this achievement is the result of an intricate interplay of biological, cognitive, and social factors. Moreover, it is worth noting that the acquisition of language is not a static process but one that continues throughout life. While the ability to produce words is an important milestone, it is just the beginning of a lifelong journey of learning and using language. In this sense, the implications from studying these factors that contribute to early language acquisition have far-reaching implications for our understanding of human cognition and behavior.
Annotated References
Brodie, E. D. III, Moore, A. I., & Janzen, F. I. (1995). Visualizing and quantifying natural selection. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 10(8), 313-318.
- This article discusses the use of visualizing and quantifying natural selection as a means of understanding the process of evolution. The authors provide a detailed overview of the methods used to visualize natural selection, including the use of mathematical models and computer simulations. They also discuss the challenges associated with quantifying natural selection, particularly in the context of complex ecological systems. The article is particularly useful in explaining evolution and natural selection because it provides a comprehensive and accessible overview of the key concepts and methods involved in studying these processes. The authors use a range of examples and case studies to illustrate how natural selection operates in different contexts, and they highlight the importance of considering both the genetic and ecological factors that influence the process. While language is not explicitly discussed in the article, the methods and concepts presented can be applied to studying the evolution of language as a complex adaptive system.
Clayton, N. S., & Dickinson, A. (1998). Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature, 395(6699), 272-274.
- This article reports on a study of scrub jays, a species of bird, which shows evidence of episodic-like memory during cache recovery. The researchers observed that the scrub jays were able to remember the location and content of their stored food caches, even when the caches had been relocated or removed by other birds. The article is particularly useful in explaining animal cognition because it provides evidence for the existence of complex cognitive processes in non-human animals. The study demonstrates that scrub jays are capable of forming and retrieving mental representations of past events, a key component of episodic memory in humans. This suggests that animals may possess more sophisticated cognitive abilities than previously thought, and that the distinction between human and non-human cognition may be less clear-cut than previously assumed.
Farroni, T., Csibra, G., Simion, F., & Johnson, M. H. (2002). The importance of eyes: How infants interpret adult looking behavior. Developmental Psychology, 38(6), 958-966. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.38.6.958
- This study that investigates how infants interpret adult looking behavior. The researchers observed the eye movements of infants as they watched videos of adults engaging in various looking behaviors. The study found that infants as young as 2 months old were able to follow the direction of an adult's gaze and use it to predict where the adult was looking. The article is useful in explaining infant cognition because it provides evidence for the early emergence of social cognition in infants. The study demonstrates that even very young infants are able to understand and interpret social cues, such as eye gaze, which are essential for social interaction. This suggests that infants are not passive recipients of social information, but active participants in social interactions from a very early age. Furthermore, the article is also useful in understanding the development of infant language. Language development is closely tied to social interaction and communication, and the ability to interpret social cues, such as eye gaze, is crucial for language acquisition. The study by Farroni and colleagues suggests that infants are equipped with the necessary cognitive and perceptual abilities to engage in social interaction and communication from a very young age, which lays the foundation for later language development.
Levinson, S. C. (2014). Language and Wallace’s problem. Evolution of Communication, 4(1), 1-17.
- This article discusses the relationship between language evolution and Wallace's problem, a longstanding question in evolutionary research. Wallace's problem refers to the fact that human language is an exceptional trait that has not been observed in any other species, despite the fact that it would seem to confer significant adaptive advantages. The article provides a summary of Wallace's problem and offers a new perspective on its potential solution. The article argues that Wallace's problem can be understood as a problem of coordination, rather than a problem of adaptation. Specifically, the evolution of language may have been driven by the need for a shared communication system that would allow for greater coordination and cooperation among individuals. The article offers evidence from various domains, including social psychology, anthropology, and linguistics, to support this hypothesis. The article is particularly useful for information on the evolution of language and its relationship to human social behavior. The author's perspective on Wallace's problem sheds new light on the evolution of language and challenges traditional assumptions about the adaptive value of language. By framing language evolution as a problem of coordination, the article offers a new perspective on the role of social behavior in driving the evolution of language.
Seyfarth, R. M., & Cheney, D. L. (1962). Meaning and mind in monkeys. Scientific American, 316(6), 62-67.
- The main goal of this article is to provide an overview of the research conducted on the communication systems of non-human primates and to explore the extent to which these systems resemble human language. The authors focus specifically on vervet monkeys and their alarm call system, which has been extensively studied and is thought to provide insights into the evolution of language. The article provides a useful overview of the research on animal communication and highlights the similarities and differences between animal communication systems and human language. The authors argue that although animal communication systems lack the complexity and flexibility of human language, they do share certain features, such as the ability to convey information about the external world and to use context to disambiguate meaning. The article also provides important context for the debate over the uniqueness of human language. By exploring the similarities and differences between animal communication systems and human language, the article sheds light on the nature of human communication and the factors that may have contributed to its evolution. The authors' focus on the vervet monkey alarm call system provides a useful case study for exploring these distinctions. The article's interdisciplinary approach, drawing on research from primatology, linguistics, and psychology, provides a comprehensive overview of the topic.
Terrace, H. S. (2005). The simultaneous chain: A new approach to serial learning. Trends in cognitive sciences, 9(5), 202-210.
- Last but not least, the main goal of this article on serial learning is to introduce a new method for studying animal cognition called the simultaneous chain. In this article Professor Terrace argues that this method is more effective than traditional methods because it allows researchers to study animals' ability to learn sequences of actions in real time. I found this article to be very useful because it provides a detailed explanation of the simultaneous chain method and how it can be applied to various species. Additionally, the author discusses how this method can be used to gain a better understanding of the evolution of cognition. It was especially helpful in developing ideas in the topic of animal cognition, as well as animal communication vs. human communication.
Additional References
Bickerton, D. (2014). More than nature needs: Language, mind, and evolution. Harvard University Press.
Burling, R. (2012). 44 Words came first: adaptations for word-learning. In The Oxford Handbook of Language Evolution (pp. 406-416). Oxford University Press.
Knell, R. J., Naish, D., Tomkins, J. L., & Hone, D. W. E. (2013). Sexual selection in prehistoric animals: detection and implications. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 28(1), 38-47.
Mundy, P., Block, J., Delgado, C., Pomares, Y., Van Hecke, A. V., & Parlade, M. V. (2007). Individual differences and the development of joint attention in infancy. Child development, 78(3), 938-954. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01042.x
Searcy, W. A., & Nowicki, S. (2019). Birdsong learning, avian cognition and the evolution of language. Trends in cognitive sciences, 9(11), 519-524.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2018). Creationism. Retrieved May 10, 2023, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/creationism/